Citizenship Models, Active Participation and Social Movements
Bauböck (2003) argues that access to citizenship must be kept open if the resident population and the number of citizens is no longer equal because of continuing immigration. Unlike the rules for automatic citizenship at birth (ius soli and ius sanguinis) all rules for naturalisation in democratic states are based on the concept of voluntary affiliation.
Castles, de Haas and Miller (2014) mention that the central issues are: defining who is a citizen, how newcomers can become citizens and what citizenship means. In principle, the nation-state only permits a single membership, but immigrants and their descendants have a relationship to more than one state. Citizenship can be distinguished into the following types: Imperial model: definition of belonging to the nation in terms of being a subject of the same power or ruler. Ethnic model: Definition of belonging to the nation in terms of ethnicity (common descent, language and culture), which means exclusion of minorities from citizenship and from the nation. Republican model: definition of the nation as a political community, based on a constitution, laws and citizenship, with the possibility of admitting newcomers to the community, providing they adhere to the political rules and are willing to adopt the national culture. Multicultural model: The nation is also defined as a political community, based on a constitution, laws and citizenship that can admit newcomers. In this model they may maintain their distinctive cultures and form ethnic communities, providing they conform to national laws. All these ideal types have one factor in common: they are premised on citizens who belong to just one nation-state. Migrant settlement is seen as a process of transferring primary loyalty from the state of origin to the new state of residence. This process is symbolically marked by naturalization and acquisition of citizenship of the new state. Transnational theory argues that this no longer applies for growing groups of migrants. Thus, an additional ideal type of citizenship may be emerging: Transnational model: identities of the members of transnational communities transcend national boundaries, leading to multiple and differentiated forms of belonging. Also, dual or multiple citizenship is becoming increasingly common.
Delanty (1997) argued that citizenship can be seen in terms of four models which emphasize different dimensions of what membership of a political community entails: rights, duties, participation and identity: The Rights Model: Rights is a dimension to citizenship which is mostly stressed by liberals and refers to the rights citizens hold against the state; The Conservative Mode l: The classic duties of citizens to the state are: taxation, military service and education; The Participatory Model : The radical idea of citizenship stresses participation as an active process and something which cannot be reduced to duty; The Communitarian Model : For communitarians, citizenship is more than rights and duties but also involves issues of identification.
Martiniello (2006) identifies a typology of the various forms of immigrant political participation in the country of settlement: i) The geographic-political level of action; ii) State politics and non-state politics; iii) Electoral politics; iv) Parliamentary politics, v) Consultative politics; vi) Involvement in political parties; vii) Union politics; viii) Other pressure groups; ix) Ethnic community mobilisation.
Online Resources
Bauböck, R., 2003, Models of Citizenship and Rules of Naturalisation, in Layton-Henry, Z. and Wilpert, C. (eds). (2003). Challenging racism in Britain and Germany, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 25-45.
(https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230506206_2)
The chapters highlights that granting citizenship is traditionally viewed as a key element of national sovereignty. Each state is free to define the criteria according to which new members are accepted.
Bauböck, R., (ed.), 2006, Migration and Citizenship Legal Status, Rights and Political Participation. IMISCOE Reports. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
(https://www.imiscoe.org/docman-books/375-bauboeck-2006/file)
This volume summarizes current theories and empirical research on the legal status and political participation of migrants in European democracies.
Castles, S., de Haas, H., and Miller, M. J., 2014, The Age of Migration (5th ed.). New York: Palgrave McMillan, 66-68.
(http://www.age-of-migration.com/about)
The publication focuses on the contemporary international migration, it explains how migrant settlement is bringing about increased ethnic diversity and how it affects broader social, cultural and political change in destination and origin societies and examines the complex interactions between migration and broader processes of change in origin and destination societies.
Delanty, G., 1997, Models of citizenship: Defining European identity and citizenship, Citizenship Studies, 1:3, 285-303.
(https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13621029708420660)
This article provides mentions that citizenship implies membership of a political community and is internally defined by rights, duties, participation, and identity. It has traditionally been subordinate to nationality, which defines the territorial limits of citizenship.
Martiniello, M., 2006, Political participation, mobilisation and representation of immigrants and their offspring in Europe, in Bauböck, R., (ed.), 2006, Migration and Citizenship Legal Status, Rights and Political Participation. IMISCOE Reports. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 84-112.
(https://www.imiscoe.org/docman-books/375-bauboeck-2006/file)
This volume summarizes current theories and empirical research on the legal status and political participation of migrants in European democracies.