Key Strategies to Favor the Social Inclusion of Migrant Women in Their Diversity of Realities, from an Interdisciplinary and Intercultural Approach
The security of permanent residence may be a fundamental step on the path to full citizenship and better integration outcomes. The path to permanent residence is halfway favourable for integration in MIPEX countries (58/100). After 5 years, most residents can apply for a long-term residence status and rights equal to national citizens, but only after proving that they are self-sufficient. Those in need of help or unable to pay the high fees are left with temporary status, with neither the necessary support nor opportunities to further their integration (Solano and Huddleston, 2020b). Facilitating access to nationality can significantly increase naturalisation rates and boost integration outcomes. Nationality policies qualify as only halfway favourable for promoting naturalisation of immigrants. Nationality policies are a major area of weakness in most European countries (Solano and Huddleston, 2020a). Member States simplified the administrative and legal requirements to meet the needs of the labour market, in particular regarding qualified workers. This approach was also taken in regard to a number of low and medium skilled occupations in several Member States where there are labour shortages in such areas (European Migration Network, 2020). However, social inclusion is hindered due to the entrapment of female migrants in informal employment, precarious, low-status/low-paid jobs (domestic work, caregiving, nursing, childcare, agriculture, cleaning, restaurant and tourist/hotel and personal care services) regardless of legal status (Fouskas, et al, 2018). Integration theories describe the acquisition of citizenship and the rights and responsibilities associated with it as a crucial step in the integration in the host country of a female third-country national. There is suggestive evidence that providing access to full citizenship can improve health and educational attainment and enhance opportunities for labour market integration. Furthermore, naturalised immigrant women in general tend to have better integration outcomes than non-nationals. However, citizenship acquisition and integration are seen differently in different Member States, depending on their approaches to citizenship. In the majority of Member States, citizenship is viewed as linked to national integration policy. In some Member States citizenship is not part of integration policies, because either there is no integration policy at the national level (in Belgium) or the policies address third-country nationals up to the point of acquiring citizenship. An exception is Greece, which in general does not address citizenship in its integration policy, but does focus on people whose grandparents were migrants, some of whom might hold Greek citizenship. Some of the Member States reported on citizenship as the ‘culmination’ of the integration process, meaning that immigrants are required to fulfil integration criteria laid out by the Member States before becoming citizens. Other Member States view on citizenship as a key measure to facilitate the integration of migrant women into the host society. In other Member States, the link between citizenship and integration is unclear or the subject of ongoing controversial debate. In a few Member States specific support is made available for new citizens. Such support ranges from information provision to specific support measures for new citizens but often target citizens with a migration background in general. In some Member States naturalisation is seen to positively contribute to labour market integration, mainly because there is equal access to the labour market with other citizens (including access to certain professions that are reserved for citizens). In most Member States acquiring citizenship is a step taken after spending several years in the country. In general, a longer residence in a country may contribute positively to employment outcomes. Citizenship is no guarantee against discrimination in the labour market.
Online Resources
Dobrowolsky, A. and Tastsoglou, E., (eds.), 2016, Women, Migration and Citizenship: Making Local, National and Transnational Connections. Florence: Taylor and Francis.
(https://www.routledge.com/Women-Migration-and-Citizenship-Making-Local-National-and-Transnational/Dobrowolsky-Tastsoglou/p/book/9780367740191)
The collection draws out the multiple connections between migration and citizenship concerns and practices for women. It features original research that examines women's diverse im/migrant and refugee experiences and exposes how gender ideologies and practices organize migrant citizenship, in its various dimensions, at the local, national and transnational levels.
European Migration Network (EMN), 2020, Annual Report on Migration and Asylum 2019. Brussels: European Migration Network
(https://www.bamf.de/SharedDocs/Anlagen/EN/EMN/Politikberichte/ZuPolitikStatistikberichten/emn-2019-politikbericht-synthese.pdf;jsessionid=8EE12EC9F5495AB69A7326B5B7F5DE63.intranet372?__blob=publicationFile&v=4)
The annual National Reports on Migration and Asylum provided by EMN NCPs aimed at describing the migration and asylum situation and developments in the Member State and Norway, as well as statistical data specifically for the year 2019.
Fouskas, T., Hatzopoulos, V., Grigoriou, P., Karabelias, G., Tsobanoglou, G., de Maio, A., Kazanas, K. and Mine, F., 2018, Labour market integration of third-country nationals in EU member states. Athens: European Public Law Organization (EPLO)/Hellenic Ministry for Migration Policy/European Commission/European Migration Network.
(http://emn.immigration.gov.gr/en/repository/send/25-2018/67-emn-study-1-2018-labour-market-integration-of-third-country-nationals-in-eu-member-states)
The National Contribution from Greece has been conducted under the 2018:1 study of the European Migration Network (ΕΜΝ). It aims at informing the Member States and the European Commission on the developments with regards to labour market integration policies targeting third-country nationals in Greece.
Solano, G. and Huddleston, T., 2020a, Access to Nationality: Migrant Integration Policy Index 2020. Barcelona/Brussels: CIDOB and MPG.
(https://www.mipex.eu/access-nationality)
The Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX) stimulates debates, informs high-level reports and is used for civil society action on migrant integration policy across the world.
Solano, G. and Huddleston, T., 2020b, Permanent Residence: Migrant Integration Policy Index 2020. Barcelona/Brussels: CIDOB and MPG.
(https://www.mipex.eu/permanent-residence)
The Migrant Integration Policy Index (MIPEX) stimulates debates, informs high-level reports and is used for civil society action on migrant integration policy across the world.