Labor Market and Female Migration
The issue of women's work emerged as an object of social struggle for feminist movements and an object of study in the social sciences in the late 1960s. Immigrant women are of growing interest to European authorities. Gisèle Halimi, the member of the European Parliament, has devoted a chapter to immigrant women in her book on the situation of these women in Europe (Plaidoyer pour l'égalité,1995). She presents the difficulties encountered by immigrant women in obtaining a job. Discussing the place of immigrant women in the labor market in France and in Europe and the factors that explain their integration and exclusion implies that there is a clear interest in this issue on the part of the various public and private actors (public authorities, unions, associations, NGOs, etc.). Moreover, it underlines the importance of determining and recognizing the multiple factors and, if possible, evaluating their impact based on both quantitative and qualitative data. In Europe, the labor market is like any other: the equilibrium comes from the confrontation between supply and demand. The labor market has a high percentage of employees paid the minimum wage and a problem of duality in the labor market between a protected sector and a second sector where flexibility and precariousness are more concentrated.
Characteristics of the labor market:
More and more immigrant women are working, but their activity rate remains lower than that of immigrant men and non-immigrant women. They are also more likely to hold part-time, precarious jobs, generally involuntary. They are mainly present indirect services to individuals (maternal assistants, housekeepers for the elderly, cleaning ladies, janitors) and in the Care sector. They are also numerous in services offering unskilled jobs such as catering, hotels, supermarkets, cleaning, and business services. This specialization means a precarious professional situation and greater exposure to unemployment that immigrant women suffer from double discrimination in the world of work because of their actual or supposed origin and gender. It is also essential to take into account the so-called informal employment where immigrant women work without being declared, and therefore known and recognized by the State services.
Institutions involved in professional integration:
The professional integration of migrant women involves various public administrative bodies and associations working in the social and solidarity economy. Governments promote action in different sectors of integration and inclusion policies for women: skills equivalence, language training, labor market, entrepreneurship, education, training, gender equality, and the fight to end violence against women.
Access to public services is conditional on legal residence and work authorization. This excludes women who are in an illegal situation. Their access to institutions for professional integration is minimal. These women find themselves in additional social, professional, and economic difficulties. The initiatives and services of the alternative economy can offer them rare and unconditional access, considered a valuable springboard and support in their migration and inclusion process.
The difficulties of being a "woman,” "migrant" and "job seeker":
The entry into the labor market of migrant women is later and more complex than that of foreign men or women due to specific and additional obstacles related to their gender and/or their migratory path: obtaining a residence permit (and renewals) and a work permit, language skills, access to information, lack of qualifications, lack of a professional and social network, mobility difficulties, childcare difficulties, stereotypes related to their origin, discrimination in hiring, more significant wage gaps among women, exposure to different forms of violence, job mismatches and overqualification of highly qualified migrant women, etc.
For those who have a higher level of education, qualifications, and/or confirmed professional experience in their countries of origin, their difficulties in the labor market can be seen in the professional downgrading experience. Regardless of nationality, women are systematically more likely to be relegated to positions below their qualifications. Immigrant women (excluding European migrants) have more difficulty finding a job, and much more a job corresponding to their training. This can be explained, in part, by the discrimination and stereotypes related to their gender and origin. Moreover, any diploma obtained abroad is not consistently recognized, representing an additional obstacle for migrant women. They may accept jobs that do not match their profile out of necessity for survival.
Immigrant women have overrepresented in the so-called "care" professions, jobs in tension towards which the various services are tempted to direct migrant women, because these orientations lead more quickly to hiring. It is also in these activities with individuals that informal work is concentrated. Women can choose to work in the idea of earning more without paying taxes or be forced to accept informal work if they do not have a work permit. In this case, they are exposed to additional risks of exploitation and the absence of social and professional protections. In addition, if they are abused and exploited at work, they may fear legal consequences for their undeclared work, which would prevent them from seeking help.
Furthermore, the participation of migrant women in the labour market depends on how they can negotiate the re-definition et distribution of their domestic responsibilities, which might prevent them from fully participating in the labour market and in integration programs, skills assessments, training and re-training measures, etc.
Online Resources
European Commission on non-EU migrants
https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1274&langId=en
This website of European Commission presents the information about the inclusion of non-EU migrants.
OECD, “Gaps in the EU Labour Market Participation Rates: an intersectional assessment of the role of gender and migrant status”, 2020
https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC121425
This study analyzes how intersecting social statuses shape labour market participation, with a special focus on gender and migrant status. It shows for example: when employed, migrant women are more likely to be over-qualified for their jobs than native women.
OECD & ILO, “Tackling Vulnerability in the Informal Economy”, 2019
https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/development/tackling-vulnerability-in-the-informal-economy_939b7bcd-en#page1
This report dedicates a chapter to analyse the gender dimension of informality. It provides evidence on gender disparities in informal employment and shows the gender-based constraints in employment outcomes and access to social protection. Also priorities are identified for policy makers through a gender lens.
OECD, “Is Informal Normal?: Towards More and Better Jobs in Developing Countries. Women in Informal Employment. What Do We Know and What Can We Do?”
https://read.oecd-ilibrary.org/development/is-informal-normal/women-in-informal-employment_9789264059245-6-en#page1
This report explains the women’s situation in informal employment and the obstacles they are encoutering. It highlights at the same time the different strategies to hely by empowering women through education, the provision of childcare and microfinance.
Kofman, E. ’Towards a gendered evaluation of (Highly) skilled immigration policies in Europe’ International Migration, 2014, 52(3): 116- 28. DOI: 10.1111/imig.12121