Greece
Knowledge of the host country’s language and accessing its labour market are the stepping stones of the integration process for all female migrants. However, the division of labour entraps female migrants, almost exclusively into the informal sector of the country’s labour market. In Greece, migrant women have become part of a cheap workforce reserve that is continually renewed while the division of labour prompts and entraps migrants into wage labour and low-status/low-wage jobs, distinguishing them by class, gender, race-nationality and way of entrance into the country. In Greece, female migrants are employed as live-in domestic workers (cleaning-caregiving) with direct-hire in households of Greek employers to support themselves and mainly their families back in their homeland.
There is still demand in Greek society for domestic servants, particularly for female contract workers, due to deficiencies in the national welfare system, not only from the upper but also from the middle-class due both to the employers’ need to shift the burden of house and family care and also as a status quo fulfilment. Concerning female migrant participation in the main sectors of economic activity, 59.4%, of female migrants can be found in the household sector followed by accommodation and food service activities at 17.2%, manufacturing at 7.2%, agriculture, forestry and fishing at 3.5%, and wholesale and retail trade at 2.7%. Shadow economy in Greece is estimated at 29.4% of the country’s GDP. Moreover, the percentage of uninsured workers is among the world’s highest (37.3%) and so is the percentage of irregular immigrants working (4.4%). Law 4375/2016, Articles 69 and 71, provide for complete and automatic access to the labour market for beneficiaries of international protection (salaried employment; provision of services or work; exercise an independent economic activity.). However, in reality, unemployment rates are very high, which is partially but not exclusively attributed to the lack of Greek language skills. Additionally, refugees face obstacles in enrolling in vocational training programmes as the majority of them cannot provide evidence (high school degrees, diplomas etc.) of their educational background, which is a prerequisite for participating. Recommendations for improvement include: Early skills-assessment, networking with employers, trainings and internships, Information regarding work rights and language-learning.
The 2019 National Integration Strategy included policy measures such as: recording and recognition of qualifications and skills (4.1.), mapping the educational background, work experience and professional profile of beneficiaries and applicants of international protection (4.1.1.), creation of an information system in order to qualitatively and quantitatively process the data of the skills mapping and its interconnection with relevant services (4.1.2.). Concerning policy measures to facilitate access to the labor market (4.2.): Promotion of employment in the rural economy and processing beneficiaries (4.2.1.), international protection (4.2.2.),mentoring, training and internship to facilitate access to the labor market of beneficiaries of international protection, and promotion of entrepreneurship(4.3.1),promotion of micro-entrepreneurship (startup companies) (4.3.).On the one hand, the Covid-19 pandemic exacerbated social inequalities, from which women were already suffering the most, exposing vulnerabilities in employment, access to education and health services. On the other hand, gender-based violence has also increased as a result of economic and social pressures in a context of movement restrictions and isolation measures. Thus, at the European level, specific integration measures for migrant women have been taken in order to mitigate the effects of periods of confinement linked to the Coronavirus. Many associations and institutions have been mobilized to continue the support and have adapted their care modalities to maintain the link with the public (individual telephone contact, WhatsApp group, development of online training modules, etc.).
References
Avlona, N. et al. (2022). Deliverable 3.2 – Report on migrant women needs to be entrepreneur. Approaches To valorise the High ENtrepreneuriAl potential of migrant women to contribute to their social and economic integration- ATHENA. (957906-AMIF- 2019-AG-CALL). Athens: Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy (ELIAMEP)
https://www.eliamep.gr/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/D3.2_ELIAMEP_Report.pdf
The ATHENA project seeks to reduce the gap in integration outcomes between migrant men and migrant women by improving migrant women entrepreneurship through enhanced services for, policies related to and support of female migrant entrepreneurs.
Department of Public Health Policy/University of West Attica, University of Gent, PRAKSIS, European Public Law Organization, SynEirmos (2018). Report on Good Practices (Deliverable 1.1 LION-Project). Synthesis Report. Report part of project Local Alliance for Integration "776213/LION" (AMIF-2016-AG-INTE). Athens: Department of Public Health Policy/University of West Attica, University of Gent, PRAKSIS, European Public Law Organization, SynEirmos.
http://allianceforintegration.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/D1.1-Report-on-best-practices.pdf
This report attempts to present the policy and good practices on the EU-level and the level of EU-member states with particular attention to the case of Greece, regarding the social integration of TCNs through employment, education, health care, social care and intercultural coexistence.
Fouskas, T., Hatzopoulos, V., Grigoriou, P., Karabelias, G., Tsobanoglou, G., de Maio, A., Kazanas, K. and Mine, F. (2018). Labour market integration of third-country nationals in EU member states. Athens: European Public Law Organization (EPLO)/Hellenic Ministry for Migration Policy/European Commission/European Migration Network.
http://emn.immigration.gov.gr/en/repository/send/25-2018/67-emn-study-1-2018-labour-market-integration-of-third-country-nationals-in-eu-member-states
The Focussed Study of the European Migration Network for the year 2018 aims at informing the Member-States and the European Commission on all the developments with regard to labour market integration policies targeting third-country nationals in Greece.
Fouskas, T., Martiniello, M., Koulierakis, G., Economou, C., de Maio, A. and Mine, F. (2020). Annual Report 2019 on Migration and Asylum in Greece: National Report: Part 2 and Statistics Annex. Athens: European Public Law Organization (EPLO)/Hellenic Ministry for Migration and Asylum/European Commission/European Migration Network.
https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/document/download/69914d51-b606-447b-95f3-2e4af9f982a2_en
The Annual Policy Report of 2019 aims at informing the Member-States and the European Commission on all the developments that took place in the year of 2019, in the areas of migration and asylum in Greece.
Fouskas, T. and Koulierakis, G. (2022). “Demystifying Migration Myths: Social Discourse on the Impact of Immigrants & Refugees in Greece”, Special Issue of Urbanities, Vol. 12 Supplement 5, 9-28, on Greek Crisis and Inequalities: Anthropological Views guest-edited by Prof. M. Spyridakis.
https://www.anthrojournal-urbanities.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/5-Fouskas-Koulierakis.pdf
This article is based on the analysis of statistical records and media coverage. The discussion focuses on the demystification of negative perceptions, stereotypes and myths regarding immigrants, asylum seekers and refugees in urban localities, examining the social discourse on the repercussions of migration in Greek society.